Introduction René Descartes (1596-1650) was a mathematician, scientist, and philosopher. Published in 1641, his Meditations on First Philosophy is one of the most influential works of philosophy ever written. Descartes aims to place philosophical knowledge on absolutely secure foundations. To do this he looks for a starting point which can be known beyond all doubt. Evidence from our senses sometimes mislead us, so they cannot be used a secure foundation of knowledge. In fact, it seems like it is possible to doubt almost all our knowledge. However, Descartes believes there …
Pleasure as the Highest Good – a short reading from Epicurus’ ‘Letter to Menoeceus’
Introduction In this passage from the Letter to Menoeceus, Epicurus (341 – 270 B.C.), summarizes two of his most famous ethical doctrines: that death should not be feared and that pleasure is the highest good. However, pleasure for Epicurus is not the indulgence of fine foods, drinking beer, and sex. Pleasure is simply the absence of pain. So for Epicurus, a simple life of quiet contemplation is the most pleasurable and therefore ideal life. Reading Let no one be slow to seek wisdom when he is young nor weary in …
Virtue as a Mean Between Two Vices – A short reading from Aristotle’s ‘Nicomachean Ethics’
The Nicomachean Ethics, written by Aristotle, is widely regarded as one of the most influential books of moral philosophy. In this passage, Aristotle examines what it means for humans to live a good life. He sees the good life as the fulfillment of the human potential to live well. To live well means to live in accordance with virtue. Aristotle makes a distinction between intellectual virtue and moral virtue. Moral virtue is formed by habit; one becomes good by doing good. Intellectual virtue, one the other hand, requires intelligence and …
The Harm of Silencing Minority Opinions – a short reading from John Stuart Mill’s ‘On Liberty’
If all mankind minus one, were of one opinion, and only one person were of the contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person, than he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind. In chapter 2 of On Liberty [1859], John Stuart Mill discusses free speech and censorship – particularly censorship which aims to suppress minority opinions. He gives four reasons for maintaining free speech and opposing censorship: A censored opinion may be true Even if it is literally false, it …
The Misery of Tyrants – a short reading from Plato’s Republic
“He who is the real tyrant, whatever men may think, is the real slave, and is obliged to practise the greatest adulation and servility, and to be the flatterer of the vilest of mankind.” In this passage from book nine of Plato’s Republic, Socrates finally responds to the challenge set by Glaucon in book two; speaking as devil’s advocate, Glaucon claimed that people want nothing to restrict their desire for more and more of everything. If anyone could profit from acting unjustly and guarantee that they could get away with …